The Bahamas Expedition of 1782 represents the overlooked final chapter of the American Revolutionary War. Seven months after Yorktown, Spanish forces under General Juan Manuel Cagigal and South Carolina naval forces led by Commodore Alexander Gillon captured Nassau on May 8, 1782. This joint operation employed strategic naval knowledge to surprise the British through the northwestern Providence channel. Francisco Miranda, later a Venezuelan independence leader, negotiated the British surrender. This forgotten Spanish-American military cooperation culminated in a diplomatic epilogue when King Charles III gifted two Spanish donkeys to George Washington, cementing the alliance that helped secure American independence beyond its commonly recognized conclusion.

History books generally cite Lord Cornwallis’s surrender at Yorktown (USA) in October 1781 as the last battle of the American War of Independence. However, seven months after this epic combat, warships from the Spanish navy and the state of South Carolina, under the command of Commodore Alexander Gillon, escorted Spanish marines and soldiers, under the orders of General Juan Manuel Cagigal, from Havana to Nassau (Bahamas), where the British surrendered on May 8, 1782. The Treaty of Paris, signed the following year, made this little-known joint expedition the true final campaign of the war¹.

The Bahamas and their strategic importance

The Bahamas or Lucayas archipelago is only 300 kilometers southeast of Nassau where Columbus landed in Guanahaní (San Salvador). During the Spanish colonization of the Americas, the Bahamas played a minor role, but in the 17th century Great Britain gave them great importance².

The English installed their first fort on Eleuthera Island, and later discovered a natural harbor to the west that they called New Providence Island, which became the British center of the Bahamas. Due to pirate plundering, the English governor built a fort in 1695, which he named Nassau in honor of King William III, Prince of Orange-Nassau. They held the archipelago until the beginning of the American War of Independence, when John Paul Jones participated in the brief conquest of Nassau in 1776, one of the first operations in the naval history of the United States³.

Spain and the American Revolution

Spain, with its own colonies, initially viewed with displeasure any American uprising against a European country, although King Charles III soon gave greater importance to the defeat of his British rival George III. When the American Revolution broke out, the Court of Madrid, in 1776, helped the colonists with money, arms, and ammunition sent from the Spanish colony of Louisiana. War in support of the United States was declared in June 1779⁴.

After failing in an attempt to recover Gibraltar, Charles III proposed a new strategy, making the Americas the main theater of operations. The Spanish King’s objectives were: to clear British troops from the north of New Orleans in Louisiana, to take Mobile and Pensacola, to expel the enemy from the Caribbean coasts in Central America, to secure Caracas, Cartagena de Indias and Portobelo, and to capture Jamaica and the Bahamas⁵.

General Bernardo de Gálvez, governor of Louisiana, effectively fulfilled his immediate assignments, taking the three British forts near New Orleans -in Baton Rouge, Natchez, and Manchac⁶– after which his attention turned to the next objective on the Gulf of Mexico coast- Fort Charlotte in Mobile -which fell in March 1780 after an intense siege; and the same happened with Pensacola in May of the following year⁷.

Five months after the capture of Pensacola, and 1,300 kilometers to the northwest, Lord Cornwallis surrendered at Yorktown to the combined Franco-American forces. Peace negotiations began in France, although the war continued on both sides of the Atlantic.

The expedition to the Bahamas

Only two objectives of vital importance remained pending: Jamaica and the Bahamas. The latter was the focus of the King’s initial attention, as they were a paradise for privateers, who caused considerable casualties among Spanish ships sailing across the Atlantic and the Caribbean.

Bernardo de Gálvez, with the support of his powerful uncle, the Minister of the Indies José de Gálvez, obtained command of all military forces in the Caribbean. His initial plan was the simultaneous invasion of Jamaica and the Bahamas, reserving for himself the command of the former. For the Bahamas, he appointed the Captain General of Cuba, Juan Manuel de Cagigal, as commander-in-chief⁸.

The attack on Nassau, 600 kilometers northwest of Havana, required a flotilla of warships and transports. Cagigal found the South Carolina of Commodore Alexander Gillon anchored in Havana, with eight small combat ships and twelve transport ships, all from the state navy of South Carolina⁹. He reached an agreement with Gillon, chartering the American ships for the transport of the 2,500 marines and soldiers destined for the attack on Nassau¹⁰.

The conquest of Nassau was important because, once captured, it would be an excellent observation point for the movement of British ships heading to attack Havana, which was defenseless due to the expeditions to Jamaica and the Bahamas.
Gillon possessed great knowledge of the waters surrounding the Bahamas, as well as the route through the little-navigated northwestern channel of Providence, which offered an opportunity to attack by surprise¹¹.1

Bernardo de Gálvez left the port of Havana for Guarico (Cap Haitien) to prepare for the invasion of Jamaica. José Solano also departed from Havana on March 5 with the same destination, leading eighty transport ships, with a total of 6,000 men and eight ships of the line.

The decisive battle and the attack on Nassau

On April 12, in one of the key battles of the war, the British fleet of George Rodney defeated the French squadron of the Count de Grasse in the waters of the island of Guadeloupe. Any Spanish-French invasion of Jamaica required naval supremacy, but this had just been lost. Taking advantage of the victory, Rodney immediately sent part of his fleet 1,500 kilometers west to stop the expected invasion of Jamaica. With Rodney’s attention focused on the protection of the British Caribbean stronghold, Cagigal thought the time had come to attack the Bahamas.

Ten days after Rodney’s victory, Cagigal, aboard the South Carolina, with eight other warships of Gillon and fifty-seven Spanish and American transport ships, set sail from the port of Havana, bound for Nassau, in the early morning of April 22. The invasion force consisted of 2,500 marines and soldiers¹².

Due to strong winds, the advance eastward along the Cuban coast was slow; on April 30, the storm abated, and the port of Manzanas was sighted about 100 kilometers east of Havana. From here the expedition headed northwest, towards the Straits of Florida, sighting the Bimini Islands on May 2. Eighty kilometers north of them, Gillon directed the South Carolina eastward, entering the northwestern channel of Providence and leaving Nassau at a distance of 200 kilometers. The following morning, May 3, a British vessel was spotted on the horizon. Caution was vital; it was necessary to hunt down the enemy vessel before it could reach the British naval base at Charleston and warn of the imminent invasion of the Bahamas. After a short skirmish, the English commander was forced to surrender. Thanks to him, it was known that the British ship had departed from Nassau the day before and that on March 20, artillery and troop reinforcements had arrived at the port from Charleston in three transport ships escorted by war frigates.

The surrender of Nassau

On the morning of May 6, within sight of Nassau, the expedition dropped anchor between Hog Island (Athol) and Salt Cay. Gillon sighted and captured two enemy ships. Cagigal reconnoitered the coasts of Hog Island to find a suitable place for landing.

That same evening, he sent his until-then little-known aide-de-camp, Lieutenant Colonel of the Aragon Infantry Regiment, Francisco Miranda, to confer in Nassau with Vice-Admiral John Maxwell, British governor of the Bahamas. Miranda, who in the future would become the precursor of Venezuelan independence, carried a letter from Cagigal stating that if the British did not surrender within the following twelve hours, the Spanish and Americans would open fire with their heavy naval artillery¹³.

Upon arriving in Nassau, Miranda was effusively greeted by Maxwell with all military honors, and they conversed amicably in English. The British officer read Cagigal’s letter, responding with a brief note in which he thanked him for the grace period granted to decide.

Maxwell spent all night working on the capitulation, and at five o’clock the next morning he sent it for Cagigal’s consideration. The latter studied the document with Miranda, dispatching an acknowledgment of receipt in which he mentioned that the Spanish terms would soon be on their way; they were sent in the early morning of May 8.

Maxwell decided to surrender. Cagigal, on behalf of Spain, signed the capitulations of the Bahamas on Hog Island, while Maxwell did the same, on behalf of Great Britain, in Nassau, coinciding with the anniversary of the taking of Pensacola.

Of the twelve points listed in the capitulation, Article 1 specified that British troops would depart for any British port, except Jamaica, with all military honors and bearing their personal weapons, but with the specific condition that these soldiers could not serve against either Spain or its allies until the exchange of Spanish prisoners was carried out¹⁴. Maxwell’s garrison consisted of 612 men, 519 bronze and iron cannons, 11 privateer ships, 137 American ships, 14 Spanish, 24 French, and 1 Dutch¹⁵.

The return to Havana

After the capitulation ceremony on Hog Island, Cagigal returned to the South Carolina. Gillon requested provisions before departing, which were supplied to him the following day.

Maxwell, dejected, wrote to his Minister of America, Lord George Germain, lamenting his defeat, while Cagigal proudly communicated to the interim governor of Cuba, Juan Deban, the victory without loss of ships or men, due to the fact that, although Maxwell had good defenses in Nassau, he expected any attack to come from the east and not through the northwestern channel, thus being taken by surprise.

With the precipitous departure of Gillon’s ships, Cagigal could not count on naval escort on his return to Havana. Vice Admiral José Salaberría sent Captain Antonio O’Carol with two war frigates to cover the expedition’s retreat.

Except for a small detachment for the protection of the Bahamas, Cagigal prepared the return to Havana with the rest of his forces. After leaving the port of Nassau, the ships entered the northwestern channel of Providence. He noted in his diary that there were scarcely 15 feet of depth, making navigation dangerous because many of the vessels had a waterline at 14 feet. His own schooner, with a 12-and-a-half-foot draft, temporarily ran aground, damaging the rudder; although it was able to float and get out to deeper waters, it continued its return journey alone, as the remaining ships were scattered in the area of the Bimini Islands, due to the strong winds encountered upon leaving the channel. Once the storm abated, the ships set off, returning to Havana.

Epilogue

Two years later, in May 1784, the United States Congress approved a resolution in favor of the South Carolina delegation, requesting compensation from Spain for the services rendered by its navy during the conquest of Nassau¹⁶. Five months later, the American envoy in Madrid, William Carmichael, presented this request for the consideration of the Minister of State Count of Floridablanca¹⁷, who, remembering the close collaboration between the two countries during the last war, entrusted the Minister of the Indies, José de Gálvez, to investigate the request.

Upon learning of this matter, Charles III, knowing that George Washington was temporarily retired in his beloved residence of Mount Vernon, wanted to give him something appropriate. Knowing the importance of Spanish donkeys in the farms of the southern United States, the monarch thought that two Zamoran donkeys would be the ideal gift. They were delivered to Virginia in 1785¹⁸. George Washington, delighted with this royal gift, wrote to Floridablanca asking him to convey his thanks to His Majesty for the donkeys¹⁹.

With this gift, the final details of the true last campaign of American independence came to an end. This little-known expedition to the Bahamas deserves to be recognized, both in Spain and in the United States.

Sources

1. Eric Beerman: The 1782 American-Spain Expedition to the Bahamas. Proceedings. Annapolis: Instituto de Marina de los Estados Unidos. Núm. 104/12/910. Diciembre, 1978. pags. 86-87.
2. Plan de operaciones. Marques de Gonzalez de Castejon, Ministro de Marina, a Jose Solano. El Pardo, 8 de abril de 1780. Archivo General de Indias (A. G. I.), Santo Domingo (S. D.), leg. 2.086.
3. A. G. I., S. D., leg. 2.086.
4. José de Galvez a Diego Navarro. San Lorenzo del Escorial. 18 de octubre de 1780. A. G. I. Papeles procedentes de Cuba (P. C.). leg. 1.290.
5. Plan de operaciones. Gonzalez de Castejón a Solano El Pardo, 8 de abril de 1780. A. G. I., S. D., leg. 2.086.
6. Relacion de la campaña que hizo D. Bernardo de Galvez contra los ingleses en la Luisiana. Septiembre, 1779. Gaceta de Madrid. 31 de diciembre de 1779.
7. Diario que yo, D. Bernardo de Galvez… formó de los acaecimientos que ocurren en ella… Mobila. 2 de enero de 1780 a 18 de marzo de 1780. Archivo General de Simancas. Guerra Moderna. leg. 6.912.
8. Bernardo de Gálvez a José de Gálvez. La Habana, 1 de enero de 1782. A. G. I. Indiferente General (I. G.), leg. 1.578.
9. Cagigal a Bernardo de Gálvez. La Habana, 21 de enero de 1782. A. G. I., S. D., leg. 2.085 bis.
10. Juan Ignacio de Urriza a Martín Mayorga. La Habana, 20 de abril de 1782. A. G. I., I. G., leg. 1.579.
11. Cagigal a Bernardo de Gálvez. La Habana, 21 de enero de 1782. Fiscal con Cagigal sobre Providencia.
12. Expedición del general D. Juan Manuel de Cagigal desde La Habana a las islas Lucayas. Juan Manuel de Cagigal, a bordo del South Caroline, 8 de mayo de 1782. Servicio Histórico Militar, Colección de Clonard, leg. 31.
13. Cagigal a Maxwell. A bordo del South Caroline, enfrente de Nassau, 6 de mayo de 1782.
14. Artículos de capitulación estipulados en Nassau de Nueva Providencia el 8 de mayo de 1782. Gaceta de Madrid, n.° 74, 13 de septiembre de 1782, págs. 760-764.
15. Estado que manifiesta las fuerzas de tierra y mar, artillería, municiones de guerra y con que ha capitulado la isla de Providencia y sus adyacentes en 8 de mayo de 1782.
16. Resolución de Carolina del Sur en el Congreso de los Estados Unidos. Filadelfia, 3 de mayo de 1784. A. H. N. Estado, leg. 3.885, exp. 19.
17. William Carmichael a Conde de Floridablanca. Madrid, 12 de octubre de 1784. Ibídem.
18. Carmichael a Floridablanca. San Lorenzo del Escorial, 12 de noviembre de 1784. Ibídem, exp. 16.
19. George Washington a Floridablanca. Mount Vernon, 19 de diciembre de 1785. Ibídem, exp. 26.