The Manila Galleon (1565-1815) marked humanity’s first truly global trade network, connecting Spain, the Americas, and Asia through a groundbreaking 15,000-nautical-mile route. These legendary ships transported Mexican silver to Manila in exchange for Chinese silks, porcelain, and Asian spices, creating unprecedented commercial and cultural connections across three continents. Over 250 years, this Spanish maritime route completed 662 voyages, transformed Manila into a multicultural hub, and established the foundations of modern global trade. Their legacy lives on in everything from Filipino architecture to language, marking one of history’s most remarkable chapters of cultural exchange.

“We propose that globalization began when the Old World connected directly with the Americas in 1571 through Manila.”
Dennis O. Flynn and Arturo Giráldez. “Born with a ‘Silver Spoon’:The Origin of World Trade in 1571”. University of Pacifico.
Journal of World History, Vol. 6, No. 2 (1995).

“The voyage from the Philippine Islands to America can be called the longest and most terrible of all in the world, because of the immense ocean to cross, which is almost half the globe, with the wind always against it, and the incredible and terrible storms that occur there.”
Giovanni Francesco Gemelli Careri. Italian adventurer and traveler of the Galleon. 1698

The Manila Galleon, also called Acapulco Galleon and Nao de China, was the name by which the ships that crossed the Pacific Ocean once or twice a year between Manila (Philippines) and the ports of New Spain in America, mainly Acapulco, were known.

These ships were the protagonist of a Philippines-New Spain (now Mexico) section of a trade route that extended from Europe to the Americas and the Asia-Pacific region, making it the first world trade route in history, as well as the longest of its time.

The entire route from Spain to the Philippines totaled about 15,000 nautical miles, connecting Seville with Veracruz on its Atlantic leg, Veracruz and Acapulco via Mexico City by land, and finally Acapulco and Manila across the entire Pacific. Although the Pacific line lasted until 1815, the complete world route operated from 1566 to 1790.

The Manila Galleon was actually a ship of some 500 to 1500 tons (there were once two) that made the Pacific route carrying very expensive merchandise, valued between 300,000 and 2500,000 pesos.

Its first voyage was made in 1565 and the last in 1821. The vessel was usually built in the Philippines (Bagatao) or in Mexico (Autlán, Jalisco). It was commanded by the commander or general and carried a crew of soldiers. Numerous passengers, who could help in the defense, also traveled. In total there were about 250 people on board.

A two-way exchange of goods

The transpacific line has existed since the discovery of the Tornaviaje (return voyage across the Pacific from the Spice Islands) by Andres de Urdaneta in 1565. It connected Manila with Acapulco from its inauguration until 1815. Asian products (silk, porcelain, ivory and spices) were transported to New Spain in exchange for silver from the mines of Zacatecas and Potosi.

Part of this oriental merchandise was then transported by land to Veracruz (crossing Mexico City) where it was loaded onto the Fleet of the Indies. This fleet departed for Seville after a stopover in Havana, carrying valuable goods from New Spain, Peru and Asia.

This importation of Oriental products for more than two hundred years led to interesting particularities in Spain, such as the adoption of the Manila shawl (although a Chinese craft) in the flamenco costume, considered today inherent to Andalusian fashion.

In the opposite direction, the Fleet of the Indies sailed the Atlantic between Spain and America as early as Columbus’ first voyage in 1492. Spanish wines, olive oil, books and manufactured goods were chartered for Veracruz and after crossing the Viceroyalty were shipped on the Acapulco Galleon to Manila along with other products from the New World.

The introduction of Spanish tools, textiles, and agricultural products to the Philippines brought about significant changes in the shape of its population. It also led to the adoption of many Spanish words in Tagalog, which have since been considered native. The new customs, practices and techniques introduced transformed the physical and cultural landscape.

The two routes that operated simultaneously

Thus, there were in total two long maritime routes that operated simultaneously in the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, connected in turn with a land route that linked Veracruz with Acapulco via Mexico City, known as “The China Road”.

This section also incorporated a small branch from the silver-producing city of Zacatecas, which supplied the Manila Galleon with this precious metal. The China Road was the only overland leg of the entire Manila-Seville route, and provided a link between the Atlantic and Pacific sea routes, forming a combined route from Manila to Seville, linking Asia, America and Europe.

In one direction products from the Far East were sent from Manila to Spain, and in the other European products were transported from Seville to Manila, through the Mexican ports of Veracruz (Atlantic) and Acapulco (Pacific). It was a truly global route that existed for more than two centuries. It crossed two oceans and linked three continents.

In other words, for 250 years, the triangle formed by Seville, Mexico City and Manila were the three most important logistical trade nodes in the world. Let’s see how it happened.

First giants: from Magellan and Elcano to Urdaneta and Legazpi

With their arrival in the Philippines by the western route, Magellan and Elcano built an unexpected bridge to the Orient and culminated an initiatory adventure that changed the history of navigation.

Although Magellan took possession of the Philippine archipelago on behalf of the King of Spain in 1521, colonization did not begin until the arrival of Adelantado of New Spain (present-day Mexico)Miguel Lopez de Legazpi in 1565.

Instructed by Philip II, Viceroy Luis de Velasco sent Legazpi to explore the Philippine Islands in search of spices. He was also sent to find a sea route back to Mexico, an enterprise in which previous expeditions by Loaysa (1525), Saavedra (1527), and Villalobos (1543) had failed.

Villalobos, who had named Sámar and Leyte “Las Filipinas” in honor of Philip II, set sail in August 1543 for the east, but returned a few weeks later, unable to find favorable winds.

The tornaviaje was finally discovered in 1565 by Andrés de Urdaneta, an Augustinian friar and pilot of the Legazpi expedition. Urdaneta was able to return to Acapulco by sailing to the 39th parallel of north latitude, where his ship, the “San Pedro”, took advantage of the eastbound Kuroshio current from Japan to cross the Pacific to California.

From there she sailed south along the coast to finally reach Acapulco. The entire crossing of the Pacific in an easterly direction took more than 4 months.

Meanwhile, Legazpi explored Sámar, Leyte, and Bohol, where the famous “Blood Pact” was signed with the Sikatuna chieftain in March 1565. Later, the first Spanish settlement in the Philippines was founded in Cebu. In 1571 Legazpi established in Manila the capital of the Philippine archipelago, already constituted as a Captaincy General, which would come to include Guam and the Mariana Islands, Palau, the Carolinas and for a time part of the Moluccas.

A period of more than three centuries

Legazpi’s arrival inaugurated a period of Spanish possession that extended for more than three centuries, and generated a permanent relationship between the Philippines and America until 1815, and between the Philippines and Spain until 1898. The political, cultural and commercial ties between such distant territories required a network of regular maritime lines to link them efficiently.

The Philippines became an autonomous Captaincy General linked to the Viceroyalty of New Spain with headquarters in Mexico. Trade between the two territories became the main incentive for Spanish immigration to the islands. The Manila Galleon, inaugurated by Urdaneta in 1565, was the answer to this logistical need.

Captaincy General of the Philippines, belonging to the Viceroyalty of New Spain.
Starting in 1565, the route discovered by Andrés de Urdaneta would inaugurate a regular line of galleons between Mexico and the Philippines, establishing a transpacific trade, a line that covered 15,500 nautical miles and would last two and a half centuries, the longest in history.

The voyage of the Manila Galleon

The exact route of this route was kept secret for a long time to protect Spain from the commercial competition of other European powers and the galleons of the English and Dutch corsairs.

The route was long and complex. From Acapulco it headed south and sailed between the 10th and 11th parallels, then climbed westward and continued between the 13th and 14th parallels to the Marianas, from there to Cavite in the Philippines.

In total, it covered 2,200 leagues in 50 to 60 days. The round trip was made towards Japan, to catch the current of the Kuroshio, but in the year 1596 the Japanese captured the galleon and a change of itinerary was advised.

It then sailed southeast to 11 degrees, then up to 22 degrees and from there to 17 degrees. It arrived in America off California, off Cape Mendocino, from where it sailed down the coast to Acapulco.

The danger of the route made it advisable to leave Manila in July, although it could be delayed until August. After this month it was impossible to make the voyage, which had to be postponed for a year. The voyage took five or six months, and therefore the arrival in Acapulco took place in December or January. Although an attempt was made to maintain an annual periodicity, it was impossible to achieve.

The voyages from Acapulco to Manila had to be made between March and June, while the return voyage took place from July to January, since these were ideal months for the always dangerous voyage.

When an epidemic broke out on board, it was recorded in the “arrival” documents due to the quarantine to which the entire crew of the infected vessel was subjected, but what happened on board, the daily events of those fascinating voyages, was lost with the time of the galleons.

During 250 years, between 1565 and 1815, the Manila galleon line made a total of 662 voyages in the Pacific Ocean between New Spain and the Philippine Islands. They used 163 vessels (naos, pataches, caravels, galleons, schooners, paquebotes, brigantines, frigates and ships of the line). Of all the voyages undertaken, 86 percent of the voyages reached their destination.

Galleons and their construction

As the name itself indicates, the ships that made the voyage between Manila and Acapulco were predominantly galleons. These are characterized by their slimmer and more stylized lines than the bulky Portuguese carracks, as well as lower stern and bow castles.

The length of these ships was usually fifty meters, with a main mast of about thirty meters, varying its weight, as a general rule, between two hundred and fifty and five hundred tons, although there were some of greater dimensions that exceeded one thousand five hundred.

An expensive construction

The construction of this type of vessels was extremely expensive for the time, but the valuable goods they carried made them profitable, which also made them a target for piracy.

The construction of the ships of the Philippine Route began to be done in shipyards in New Spain, but the better location of the Philippine shipyards and the higher quality of the existing wood displaced them. During the 250 years that the navigation lasted, 50 ships were built for this purpose: fifteen in Mexican shipyards (Autlán, Jalisco) and the rest in the Philippines (Bagatao, Cavite and Sual).

The sails were manufactured in Manila and the anchors, fittings and nails were cast in India, Japan and China. Philippine shipyards used woods such as molave, banaba, lauan and guijo. Apitong was used for the decks and mangachapuy for the rigging. The Philippine ships, often made of molave wood, were wider, more comfortable and safer. The last of those built there was the Sacra Familia, which made her first voyage in 1718.

Structure of the galleons

Its rigging was composed of three masts in total. The mizzen mast had three square sails, the lowest of which served to balance the great topsail of the mainmast. The mainmast had three square sails in which the lower sail or topsail represented almost half the sail.

The foresail had a lateen sail and, above it, a square sail. In the larger ones, there was a fourth mast at the stern called the countermasthead with a triangular sail whose ropes or sheets were attached to a horizontal pole that protruded from the stern and was called the bowsprit. On the bowsprit, it carried a square sail called the bowsprit, which was joined, at the end of the 16th century, by a sail called the counter bowsprit.

Space distribution on the galleons

The space on the galleons was distributed between the cargo and the people who lived on board. In the hold, above the keel planking and below the plan, was the ballast, generally made of rocks or sand.

This was also where the larger and heavier barrels containing the more durable foodstuffs were placed. On the lower deck or first deck located on the roof of the hold, and on the upper deck called the bridge or upper deck, together with the superstructures at the bow and stern, was where the life of the crew and the soldiers took place.

The sea captain and the war captain were housed in the main chamber, where their personal belongings and various ship’s stores were kept, such as a box with battle axes that went under the captain’s bed. If there were infantry captains on board, he shared his chamber with them.

Above it was the chamber of the pilot (maestre) and his assistant, the constable stayed in the santabárbara and the artillerymen stayed with him. The chaplain stayed in the saidilla, between the mainmast and the main chamber. The sailors slept in the quarterdeck or on the first deck.

Trade and markets: transported goods

Truly global trade came to the fore with the founding of the city of Manila in 1571. It became the first direct and permanent commercial link between the Americas and Asia.

From this date onwards, all densely populated continents traded with each other directly and indirectly in substantial volumes.

Silver was the condition of this global trade. Spanish America was the source of an estimated 150,000 tons of silver between 1500 and 1800, comprising perhaps 80% of world production.

The success of the Manila Galleon was therefore Mexican silver, which commanded a very high price in Asia, as the existing bimetallic ratio favored it over gold. Moreover, silver was scarcer in Asia than in America and Europe.

This made it possible to buy with it almost all the sumptuous articles manufactured in Asia at a very cheap price and then sell them in America and Europe with an immense profit margin (easily over 300 per 100).

From Acapulco to Manila, large quantities of silver from Zacatecas and Potosi were shipped in exchange for valuable Asian goods. Animals such as cows and horses were also transported. The same was done with many types of American plants: corn, cocoa, sugar cane, tobacco, peanuts, tomatoes, squash, papaya, peppers, avocado, vanilla, as well as dyes, sarsaparilla or hides.

The ships also carried civil servants, settlers, soldiers and priests, including newly appointed governors, archbishops and occasionally royal visitors or inspectors. They also carried official correspondence between the two cities and from the Metropolis.

European products also arrived in Manila after the transatlantic and transpacific voyages, for example, Spanish wines and olive oil contained in large earthenware jars. These products came mostly from the Aljarafe region of Seville. Manufactured goods such as household utensils, construction tools, weapons and textiles were also exported to the Philippines. European fruits, vegetables and animals were also continuously traded.

In any case, Mexican and Peruvian silver became the main input of a lucrative trade between the Philippines and countries in the area such as China, the Moluccas, Japan, Formosa, Siam and even India.

Philippine merchants bought valuable goods from Chinese traders and together with those of local manufacturers, loaded them on the Galleon according to a system of boletas or cargo permits granted to Spanish residents of the Philippines.

Manila and Acapulco: commercial hubs

The terminals of Manila and Acapulco were once great commercial hubs for exotic goods and their fairs were more picturesque than any other.

In Manila, beautiful Indian ivories and precious stones, silks, jade and Chinese porcelain, Timor sandalwood, Japanese lacquerware and furniture, spices such as cloves and nutmeg from the Moluccas, cinnamon from Ceylon, camphor from Borneo, ginger from Malabar, as well as damasks, lacquers, tibores, tapestries, perfumes, etc., were loaded.

After paying the import royalties to the Royal Treasury, they were exhibited at the Acapulco Fair, which was regulated in 1579 and lasted a month.

A year later, the galleon returned to Manila full of Reales de a ocho, the currency of the time, or silver ingots, which were given to the Manila merchants for the goods previously dispensed.

They in turn reinvested them in new merchandise, making a lucrative business flourish. Also sent from New Spain was the Real Situado, which was the Socorro to the authorities of the Philippines to defray the expenses of defense of such a coveted province.

If the shipments coming from Europe were voluminous and quite diversified, they were not even the pale reflection of those arriving from the Orient and returning to the Philippines loaded with silver, cochineal and soap. Spices from the Moluccas, silk, ivory, porcelain and jade from China, Japanese lacquer wares along with Philippine cinnamon and cotton textiles were among the goods shipped to Manila.

Parian of the Sangleyes in Manila

The famous Parian of the Sangleyes in Manila was a sort of gigantic supply center run by Chinese merchants. It concentrated in its warehouses products from Persia, India, Indochina, China and Japan destined for the powerful viceroyalty of New Spain.

These products included spices, perfumes, porcelain, ivory, bronzes, furniture (including screens), silk, gold and silver thread, various textiles, pearls and precious stones in bulk, jade pieces and fine jewelry.

These items required careful and voluminous packaging in enormous baskets and boxes of finely woven bamboo, which is why it is not surprising that during the 18th century there were galleons that sailed the Pacific Ocean, such as the Rosario and the Santísima Trinidad, weighing 1700 and 2000 tons, respectively.

Part of the goods from the Philippines stayed in New Spain or went to Peru, but the Casa de Contratación made sure that a large part of the merchandise was sent to Veracruz and loaded on the Fleet of the Indies for Spain. This influx of Asian products gave rise to some cultural influences in Spain that have remained to this day.

The classic example is the adoption of the Manila shawl in traditional flamenco dress, inherent in Andalusian fashion. As silk garments arrived in Seville aboard the galleons, the shawl soon became popular among women, and in time, incorporated into the Sevillana costume, becoming the icon of flamenco fashion. The fineness of its silk and the charm of its designs soon made Spanish women fall in love with it, becoming over time a highly appreciated distinctive feature.

Manila: archetype of multiculturalism

Manila had 42,000 inhabitants in the mid-17th century, about the same population as Barcelona, Danzig, Marseille or other western cities of the time. Manila’s population around 1650 included approximately 15,000 Chinese, 7,350 Spaniards, and approximately 20,124 Filipinos. But this was only the tip of the iceberg.

In addition to this distribution, in Spanish Manila one could find the most diverse population archetypes that our Western world has been facing in recent years, such as globalization and multiculturalism.

The extraordinary variety of ethnic models that the city displayed made it the most exotic of the Spanish colonial domain as a whole, which was already the most diverse in the world.

Manila was probably one of the most original experiments in multi-ethnic coexistence in the field known to Europeans and to the world in general. In Manila there were, among others: Filipinos, Chinese, Taiwanese, Japanese, Conchinchinese, Indians, Armenians, Cantonese, European Spaniards and Spanish Americans, Portuguese (derived from trade with Macao), Italians, Swedes, English and Dutch (these two only under the Malabar flag, being rival nations and periodically enemies), Native Americans and colored population (both slaves and freedmen).

They did not live completely together, but were habitually close and managed to find the right solutions to everyday problems, usually with surprising practicality.

The Jesuit Manuel Ignacio de Arenas, traveled to the Philippines in 1757, in the last expedition that left organized by the Society of Jesus, before the order of expulsion of the same one of all the Hispanic dominions was executed. His Compendium or Discourse on the population of America and the Philippine Islands (1778-1780) is an essential account of how the population was distributed in the Spanish dominions of the time, and is irrefutable proof of its impressive variety, multiculturalism and richness. Let us see an excerpt of what it refers to regarding Manila:

“… Manila is the only formal city in the islands. Its situation is one of the most delightful and magnificent imaginable. At the bottom of a large inlet, on a large and calm river in flat and pleasant territory, all full of houses, orchards, palm trees and other fruit trees, which are always kept green and make a beautiful view. The city is small and is only a thousand common steps long and 600 wide. It is well fortified. The streets are long and stringed. The buildings are large, of good stone and comfortable, but low for fear of the tremors that are very frequent. There are 5 convents of religious, 4 schools, 2 hospitals, 1 convent of nuns, 2 beaterios and three conservatories for girls. The suburbs are very large and are called villages, and are in number of 80, with their parishes and several houses of the religious. Thus the whole complex forms one of the great cities of the Indies, which exceeds ten thousand neighbors. Its commerce is very flourishing, because apart from that which it exercises with the islands, supplying them with many goods, and collecting all the best that is found in them, people from almost all over the world come there. And so they join French, English, Dutch, Swedes, Armenians, Malabarians, Chinese, and many other nations …”

Another Jesuit, Father Pedro Murillo Velarde, who lived in Manila in the mid-18th century, tells an interesting and endearing anecdote about local conversations:

“Being one hour on the Tuley or Bridge of Manila you will see almost all the nations of Europe, Asia, America and Africa pass by; you will see their costumes and hear their languages. The wonder is that all these to communicate with each other speak Spanish … but how! Each nation has formed a jargon by which they understand each other. I heard one day a big fight between a Sangley, an Armenian and I think a Malabar; they all spoke Spanish and I did not understand any of them, because I had not studied their vocabularies …”.

And it is that for a long time Spanish was the language used preferably also for communication from East to West, which increased the richness and variety of our language, in addition to incorporating it into local speech. Multiculturalism in vein.

The Sangleyes: key to trade with Asia

Although attempts to establish direct relations with China and to settle there either peacefully or militarily failed, the Spanish and the Chinese ended up meeting in the Philippines.

Very soon a Chinese world was established in Manila that participated fully in the articulation of the Spanish colonial system in the Orient, to the point that, without the Chinese in Manila, whom the Spanish called sangleyes, it is difficult to imagine that the city would have survived and that the Spanish presence in the Philippines itself would have been possible.

Hundreds of Chinese arrived each year with the goods that the Spanish community in Manila bought to embark on the galleon that crossed the Pacific and sell in Acapulco. They usually stayed in Manila for about half a year, the time they spent selling their products, and then they had to return to China.

However, the reality was that many stayed in and around Manila as merchants and as artisans in every imaginable trade. They then spread throughout the provinces and also participated in the local economies, so that they ended up controlling most of the major trade and all the minor trade, because it was not easy to compete with them.

The oidor Antonio de Morga, a qualified witness of the life of Manila between 1595 and 1603, left us a lot of news about the Chinese. Regarding commercial transactions with the Spanish, he has left us this other gem about the eternal “art of negotiating” of the Chinese:

“The ordinary price of the raw and woven silks and manteries, which is the thickest thing they bring, is done slowly and by people who understand it, as well by the Spaniards as by the Sangleyes, and what is given for them is silver and reales, who do not want gold or other some ransoms nor take them to China. And all the employment has to be done in the whole month of May, a little more or less, so that the sangley can return and so that the Spaniard has it ready to load it on the ships that at the end of June leave for New Spain, although also the most generous farmers and with plenty of money usually do it later, at more moderate prices and keep it for another year. And some sangleyes, with the same intention, stay in Manila with part of their merchandise when they have not had a good exit of them to sell them more slowly. They are very practical and intelligent people in the merchandise and of much phlegm and reportage to do their business better, and they know how to trust and make comfort liberally to whom they know treats them truthfully and they are not to be lacking in the payment at the time they put in. On the other hand, as people without law or conscience and so greedy, they make a thousand frauds and deceits in the merchandise, that it is necessary to be very attentive and to know them so as not to be deceived the buyers, who also retaliate in bad payments and tricks that they make them, that in one and other they have of ordinary the judges and audience well in what to occupy themselves …”.

Chinese porcelain was a highly valued and sought after product in the exchange of goods between East and West. In Europe they were not able to model objects of the same beauty nor to match them in brightness, transparency and sound. The raw material, kaolin, was extracted from the quarry located in the city of Jingdezhen, Jiangxi province, where it was manufactured. From there, it was sent to Canton, which, due to its access to the sea, became the most important commercial port in China. The blue and white pieces with Chinese decorative motifs were very well received in European homes.

Their coloring was also perfected during the 17th century. By the 18th century, owning a set of Pink and Green Family china was a sign of distinction in the mansions of the royalty, nobility and bourgeoisie of the old continent.

Influence on Religious and Decorative Art

The religious and decorative art of Mexico and Spain was also influenced by Oriental designs for sculptures and other objects made in Manila by Chinese artisans and chartered on the Manila Galleon.

There are interesting examples in Mexico of chiseled ivory religious statues (of Christs, virgins and saints) that reflect Asian features or styles. The importation of these products from America and Spain influenced the Chinese or Filipino manufacturers who incorporated these oriental styles into their works.

However, much of the porcelain and carved ivory remained in the Americas and, in many cases, influenced artists working there: Mexican ceramics show the impact of the galleon trade most vividly.

But Chinese silk designs may have inspired some of the printed garments of the Guatemalan sculptures, whose faces also betray the subtle influence of Asian ivory carvings.

Cultural Repercussions of the Manila Galleon

The Spanish influence on Mexican and Philippine culture was much stronger than the other way around, since Spain was the colonizing power, and therefore brought its own culture to the territories they established.

The Spanish brought to the islands our Catholic religion, our architecture, arts and language. The missionary led to the spread of Christianity in the late 17th century and today the Philippines is one of two predominantly Christian countries in Asia, the other being East Timor.

Spanish building methods and styles transformed the urban landscape in the islands and led to a genuine Filipino style of architecture, which combines Spanish, native and Chinese elements and still endures today. The “Bahay na Bato” or traditional Filipino house made of stone and wood, usually nipa palm or bamboo, is a good example.

Spanish in the Philippines

The Manila galleon also introduced the Spanish language to the Philippines and transferred it to the traders from the rest of the countries that came to this market. Although it was not officially a requirement to teach this language to native Filipinos, it was common for different religious orders from the beginning and important educational institutions to use Spanish as a medium of instruction.

Early examples are the Colegio de San Ildefonso (Cebu) founded in 1595, which later became the University of San Carlos, the University of Santo Tomas (Manila) founded in 1611, the San Juan de Letran School (Manila), established in 1620, rehabilitated after being destroyed by Japanese bombing in World War II. In 1859 the Ateneo de Manila University was founded.

Already in the 19th century the Filipino educated class was fluent in Spanish and Filipino literature in Spanish emerged. In 1863, almost fifty years after the end of the galleon trade, Queen Isabella decreed the creation of a public education system in the Philippines, which led to the construction of numerous schools throughout the archipelago.

Words of Spanish origin in Philippine languages

The introduction of many items resulted in the adoption of corresponding Spanish terms by the native Filipino languages and dialects. For example, Tagalog words for tableware are mostly from Spanish borrowings: “kutsara” (spoon), “tinidor” (fork), “kutsylio” (knife), among others.

Many tools used in construction or agriculture also have a Spanish origin: “martylio” (hammer), “tornylio” (screw), “lyabe” (wrench), and “araro” (plow). This also applies to fruits, vegetables, and animals that were brought from Spain aboard the fleets of the Indies and the Manila Galleons.

Among other examples are “cabalyo” (horse), “baka” (cow), “mola” (mule), and agricultural products such as “algodon” (cotton), “asukal” (sugar), and “oliba” (olive). Other products were brought directly from America, and the Spanish version of the Native American word was incorporated, namely: “patatas” (potato), “mais” (corn), and “tsokolate” (chocolate).

By the 1890s a large portion of middle-class Filipinos had Spanish as their first or second language. In fact, when Philippine independence from Spain was achieved and the Malolos Constitution established the First Republic in 1899, Spanish was chosen as the official language of the country.

Later, during the period of the U.S. administration that lasted until 1946, the Spanish language was marginalized, and gradually declined.

Final Note

Dear reader, if you have come this far -and if you have also read what is told in the article dedicated to the Fleet of the Indies, the exploration of the Pacific and other previous ones-, I hope it is because you have also felt fascinated by the worlds and environments evoked by that extraordinary epic of multiculturalism and exchange that our ancestors placed before history.

If so, perhaps you will agree with me that it is surprising to say the least – the word that comes to mind is regrettable – the widespread lack of knowledge – together with the overabundance of misinformation and prejudice – that exists about the extraordinary reality of discovery, interculturalism and globalization that the Spanish Empire and what was then known as “the Spains” entailed.

Almost none of this is told in our books. The history of the world we know seems to have forgotten these chapters, replaced by others written later and with different protagonists, generally foreign to our cultural environment.

The following section contains the very interesting – and also scarce – bibliography found to this effect. The researchers found are almost all current: Spaniards, Hispanic Americans or Asians. Anglo-Saxon researchers -with honorable exceptions- are conspicuous by their absence.

We strongly recommend a careful reading of the sources reported and we would be grateful for any further information on them. We hope in any case that much more apt divulgers than this apprentice can rescue for the universal memory forever such a fascinating period, as well as so many other related ones. So, let it be.

Sources

• Ferragut, M.J., El galeón de Manila (Ministerio de Defensa, 2016)
• Hernández Hortigüela, J., El Galeón de Manila: el poder de la “ciudad y comercio” (2013)
• Hernández Hortigüela, J., El Galeón de Manila y las californias españolas (2014)
• Flynn, D.O. & Giráldez, A., Born with a “Silver Spoon”: The Origin of World Trade in 1571 (Harvard Press, 1995)
• Ruescas, J. & Wrana, J. La Flota de Indias y el Galeón de Manila: la Primera Ruta Comercial Mundial (2009)
• Dobado González, R., La globalización Hispana del comercio y el arte en la Edad Moderna (2014)
• García-Abásolo, A., Los chinos y el modelo colonial español en Filipinas (2011)
• Fang, C., Los comerciantes sangleyes en Manila en el siglo XVII (2015)
• de Arenas, M.I., Compendio de la población de América y Filipinas (ca. 1778-1780)
• El Galeón de Manila in Asociación Cultural Galeón de Manila
• Galeones de Manila in La América española
• El Galeón de Manila in almendron.com
• La ruta española que unió tres continentes in Fundación Museo Naval
• La naval de Manila in Espejo de navegantes